Perang Cyber

Perang cyber antara hacker Indonesia melawan hacker Australia telah dimulai. Hacker kedua negara sudah saling melakukan serangan Distributed denial of Service (DdoS)ke server-server negara lawan sejak pertengahan bulan ini.

Perihal saling serang ini diungkapkan Predator, seorang hacktivis dari kelompok hacker "Hiddenline" kepada detikcom, Kamis (28/11/2002). Menurutnya serangan DdoS hacker Australia ke sebuah ISP di Yogyakarta bisa jadi merupakan serangan balasan.

"Saya rasa itu mungkin balasan dari pihak Aussie atas aktivitas DdoS yang datang dari Yogyakarta.Anggota kami pertengahan bulan ini aktif menyerang 203 (prefiks nomor IP Australia - Red) secara DdoS", tulis Predator dalam emailnya.

Serangan tersebut menurut Preadator dilakukan dari Yogyakarta dan tercatat memiliki nomor IP dari daerah tersebut.

Seperti diberitakan detikcom sebelumnya, selama satu pekan terakhir, sebuah perusahaan internet service provider (ISP) di Yogyakarta berulang kali terkena serangan DdoS yang dilakukan melalui ISP Telstra Internet di Canberra, Australia.

Hacker tersebut melakukan serangan DdoS melalui port User Datagram Protocol (UDP). Akibat serangan ini, bandwith ISP tersebut menjadi penuh sesak dan para pelanggan tidak dapat melakukan akses internet sebagai mana mestinya.

Saling serang antara hacker Indonesia dan Australia dimulai dengan serangan mass defacing hacker Indonesia ke situs-situs internet Australia. Serangan cyber ini disulut aksi sweeping gaya Rambo yang dilakukan pihak kepolisian dan badan intelejen ASIO terhadap warga negara Indonesia di Australia akhir bulan lalu.

Perang cyber kali ini bukan yang pertama kali bagi kalangan hacker Indonesia. Pada 1998, sempat terjadi perang cyber melawan hacker-hacker Cina pasca kerusuhan Mei tahun itu. Pada 1999 terjadi perang cyber melawan Portugis sebelum jajak pendapat di Timor Timur.

Perang cyber melawan Portugis berubah menjadi perang cyber melawan Australia ketika negara tersebut mulai turut campur setelah terjadinya kerusuhan pasca jajak pendapat.

Jenayah Cyber

JENAYAH tidak hanya berlaku di alam nyata sebaliknya dalam perkembangan teknologi maklumat yang semakin pantas dan sentiasa berubah setiap masa ia dapat berlaku hanya dengan menaip di papan kekunci komputer.

Bagaimanapun ramai pengguna komputer tidak tahu bagaimana mendapat maklumat atau perlindungan sekiranya berlaku sesuatu mencurigakan seperti pencerobohan ke atas komputer, laman web atau emel.

Pertama kali diperkenalkan pada 1997 dan dikenali sebagai Malaysian Computer Emergency Response Team (MyCert) di bawah kendalian MIMOS Berhad (MIMOS) bertujuan mengawal selia pengguna internet di Malaysia.

Bagaimanapun, pada 24 Januari 1998 MyCERT diberi peranan yang lebih luas dan dijadikan sebagai National ICT Security and Emergency Response Centre (NISER) untuk mengawal ICT negara.

NISER dirasmikan oleh Perdana Menteri Datuk Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi pada 10 April 2001. NISER kemudian dikeluarkan dari MIMOS dan dijadikan entiti berasingan dan dikenali sebagai CyberSecurity Malaysia pada Mac 2007.

Pemangku Ketua Pegawai Eksekutif CyberSecurity Malaysia, Lt Kol (B) Husin Jazri, berkata agensi di bawah Kementerian Sains Teknologi dan Inovasi (MOSTI) itu akan menjadi pusat rujukan pakar keselamatan siber kepada mana-mana agensi kerajaan lain dan syarikat swasta, termasuk orang perseorangan bagi mendapatkan khidmat nasihat berkaitan dengan keselamatan dan pencegahan jenayah di alam siber.

“CyberSecurity Malaysia beroperasi sebagai syarikat kerajaan bukan berlandaskan keuntungan dan berada di kawalselia MOSTI.

“Agensi ini juga bukan badan penguatkuasa, sebaliknya agensi teknikal yang boleh membantu pengguna internet menangani ancaman siber serta memberi khidmat nasihat dan bertindak sebagai biro aduan awam bagi pengguna internet.

“CyberSecurity Malaysia adalah agensi teknikal dan menjadi biro pengaduan kepada pengguna dalam menyelesaikan masalah keselamatan internet di Malaysia,’ katanya.

CyberSecurity Malaysia ialah pusat koordinasi setempat untuk keselamatan pengguna siber kebangsaan dan ditubuhkan dengan objektif untuk melindungi, membimbing, promosi di samping merangka strategi dalam menangani isu keselamatan siber di Malaysia.

Peranan CyberSecurity Malaysia membabitkan pencegahan jenayah di samping mempromosikan standard dan pengalaman terbaik keselamatan maklumat, membantu mangsa jenayah siber, juruperunding kepada Kerajaan dan mengurangkan pencerobohan ke atas sistem dan rangkaian teknologi maklumat di Malaysia.

Menerusi CyberSecurity Malaysia lima perkhidmatan diperkenalkan kepada orang ramai iaitu ‘Cyber999 atau Tindakbalas Kecemasan Komputer’, ‘Forensik Siber’, ‘Jaminan Keselamatan Maklumat’, ‘Pengurusan Keselamatan Maklumat ’ dan ‘Latihan dan Pembudayaan”.

Orang ramai yang berdepan dengan masalah keselamatan siber boleh mendapatkan khidmat daripada CyberSecurity yang beroperasi bermula jam 8.30 pagi hingga 5.30 petang hari Isnin hingga Jumaat. CyberSecurity Malaysia juga membuka komunikasi kecemasan 24 jam melalui emel, sms dan telefon.

Differencess between internet,intranet,extranet

Internet: Is now the World Wide Web (WWW) network of computers that is dispersedly managed with minimal restriction. It is what you have asked this question over.
Intranet: Operates much the same as the Internet but is restricted to a single corporate entity that has full control and management over it. Able to maximize restrictions over users.
Extranet: is an extension of an Intranet over the Internet for remote users. Typically it is heavily restricted for security reasons to a virtual private network (VPN) connection for Telecommuters or other offsite users.
Ethernet is the standard cable for computers to hook up to the network. It is also used for network devices (Routers, modems & switches) to interface with each other.

Bus topology

A bus topology connects each computer (nodes) to a single segment trunk (a communication line, typically coax cable, that is referred to as the 'bus'. The signal travels from one end of the bus to the other. A terminator is required at each to absorb the signal so as it does not reflect back across the bus. A media access method called CSMA/MA is used to handle the collision that occur when two signals placed on the wire at the same time. The bus topology is passive. In other words, the computers on the bus simply 'listen' for a signal; they are not responsible for moving the signal along.

Star topology

Star networks are one of the most common computer network topologies. In its simplest form, a star network consists of one central switch, hub or computer, which acts as a conduit to transmit messages.[1] Thus, the hub and leaf nodes, and the transmission lines between them, form a graph with the topology of a star. If the central node is passive, the originating node must be able to tolerate the reception of an echo of its own transmission, delayed by the two-way transmission time (i.e. to and from the central node) plus any delay generated in the central node. An active star network has an active central node that usually has the means to prevent echo-related problems.

The star topology reduces the chance of network failure by connecting all of the systems to a central node. When applied to a bus-based network, this central hub rebroadcasts all transmissions received from any peripheral node to all peripheral nodes on the network, sometimes including the originating node. All peripheral nodes may thus communicate with all others by transmitting to, and receiving from, the central node only. The failure of a transmission line linking any peripheral node to the central node will result in the isolation of that peripheral node from all others, but the rest of the systems will be unaffected. [2]

It is also designed with each node (file servers, workstations, and peripherals) connected directly to a central network hub, switch, or concentrator.

Data on a star network passes through the hub, switch, or concentrator before continuing to its destination. The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and controls all functions of the network. It is also acts as a repeater for the data flow. This configuration is common with twisted pair cable. However, it can also be used with coaxial cable or optical fibre cable.

Contents [hide]
1 Advantages
2 Disadvantages
3 References
4 See also

Ring topology

A ring network is a network topology in which each node connects to exactly two other nodes, forming a single continuous pathway for signals through each node - a ring. Data travels from node to node, with each node along the way handling every packet.

Because a ring topology provides only one pathway between any two nodes, ring networks may be disrupted by the failure of a single link[1]. A node failure or cable break might isolate every node attached to the ring. FDDI networks overcome this vulnerability by sending data on a clockwise and a counterclockwise ring: in the event of a break data is wrapped back onto the complementary ring before it reaches the end of the cable, maintaining a path to every node along the resulting "C-Ring". 802.5 networks -- also known as IBM Token Ring networks -- avoid the weakness of a ring topology altogether: they actually use a star topology at the physical layer and a Multistation Access Unit (MAU) to imitate a ring at the datalink layer.

Many ring networks add a "counter-rotating ring" to form a redundant topology. Such "dual ring" networks include Spatial Reuse Protocol, Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), and Resilient Packet Ring.

Network topology

Network topology is defined as the interconnection of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a computer network.[1][2] Network Topologies can be physical or logical. Physical Topology means the physical design of a network including the devices, location and cable installation. Logical topology refers to the fact that how data actually transfers in a network as opposed to its physical design.
Topology can be considered as a virtual shape or structure of a network. This shape actually does not correspond to the actual physical design of the devices on the computer network. The computers on the home network can be arranged in a circle shape but it does not necessarily mean that it presents a ring topology.
Any particular network topology is determined only by the graphical mapping of the configuration of physical and/or logical connections between nodes. The study of network topology uses graph theory. Distances between nodes, physical interconnections, transmission rates, and/or signal types may differ in two networks and yet their topologies may be identical.
A Local Area Network (LAN) is one example of a network that exhibits both a physical topology and a logical topology. Any given node in the LAN has one or more links to one or more nodes in the network and the mapping of these links and nodes in a graph results in a geometrical shape that may be used to describe the physical topology of the network. Likewise, the mapping of the data flow between the nodes in the network determines the logical topology of the network. The physical and logical topologies may or may not be identical in any particular network.

Network architecture

Network architecture is the design of a communications network. It is a framework for the specification of a network's physical components and their functional organization and configuration, its operational principles and procedures, as well as data formats used in its operation.
In computing, the network architecture is a characteristics of a computer network. The most prominent architecture today is evident in the framework of the Internet, which is based on the Internet Protocol Suite.
In telecommunication, the specification of a network architecture may also include a detailed description of products and services delivered via a communications network, as well as detailed rate and billing structures under which services are compensated.
In distinct usage in distributed computing, network architecture is also sometimes used as a synonym for the structure and classification of distributed application architecture, as the participating nodes in a distributed application are often referred to as a network. For example, the applications architecture of the public switched telephone network (PSTN) has been termed the Advanced Intelligent Network. There are any number of specific classifications but all lie on a continuum between the dumb network (e.g., Internet) and the intelligent computer network (e.g., the telephone network). Other networks contain various elements of these two classical types to make them suitable for various types of applications. Recently the context aware network, which is a synthesis of the two, has gained much interest with its ability to combine the best elements of both.

Computer network

A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of computers and devices connected by communications channels that facilitates communications among users and allows users to share resources with other users. Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics. This article provides a general overview of types and categories and also presents the basic components of a network.

read-only memory

Read-only memory (usually known by its acronym, ROM) is a class of storage media used in computers and other electronic devices. Because data stored in ROM cannot be modified (at least not very quickly or easily), it is mainly used to distribute firmware (software that is very closely tied to specific hardware, and unlikely to require frequent updates)

In its strictest sense, ROM refers only to mask ROM (the oldest type of solid state ROM), which is fabricated with the desired data permanently stored in it, and thus can never be modified. However, more modern types such as EPROM and flash EEPROM can be erased and re-programmed multiple times; they are still described as "read-only memory"(ROM) because the reprogramming process is generally infrequent, comparatively slow, and often does not permit random access writes to individual memory locations. Despite the simplicity of mask ROM, economies of scale and field-programmability often make reprogrammable technologies more flexible and inexpensive, so mask ROM is rarely used in new products as of 2007^[update].

random acses memory (RAM)

Random-access memory (RAM) is a form of computer data storage. Today, it takes the form of integrated circuits that allow stored data to be accessed in any order (i.e., at random). "Random" refers to the idea that any piece of data can be returned in a constant time, regardless of its physical location and whether or not it is related to the previous piece of data.^[1]

By contrast, storage devices such as magnetic discs and optical discs rely on the physical movement of the recording medium or a reading head. In these devices, the movement takes longer than data transfer, and the retrieval time varies based on the physical location of the next item.

The word RAM is often associated with volatile types of memory (such as DRAM memory modules), where the information is lost after the power is switched off. Many other types of memory are RAM, too, including most types of ROM and a type of flash memory called NOR-Flash.

primary storage

Primary storage

Direct links to this section: Primary storage, Main memory, Internal Memory.

Primary storage (or main memory or internal memory), often referred to simply as memory, is the only one directly accessible to the CPU. The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as required. Any data actively operated on is also stored there in uniform manner.

Historically, early computers used delay lines, Williams tubes, or rotating magnetic drums as primary storage. By 1954, those unreliable methods were mostly replaced by magnetic core memory, which was still rather cumbersome. Undoubtedly, a revolution was started with the invention of a transistor, that soon enabled then-unbelievable miniaturization of electronic memory via solid-state silicon chip technology.

This led to a modern random-access memory (RAM). It is small-sized, light, but quite expensive at the same time. (The particular types of RAM used for primary storage are also volatile, i.e. they lose the information when not powered).

As shown in the diagram, traditionally there are two more sub-layers of the primary storage, besides main large-capacity RAM:

• Processor registers are located inside the processor. Each register typically holds a word of data (often 32 or 64 bits). CPU instructions instruct the arithmetic and logic unit to perform various calculations or other operations on this data (or with the help of it). Registers are technically among the fastest of all forms of computer data storage.
• Processor cache is an intermediate stage between ultra-fast registers and much slower main memory. It's introduced solely to increase performance of the computer. Most actively used information in the main memory is just duplicated in the cache memory, which is faster, but of much lesser capacity. On the other hand it is much slower, but much larger than processor registers. Multi-level hierarchical cache setup is also commonly used—primary cache being smallest, fastest and located inside the processor; secondary cache being somewhat larger and slower.

Main memory is directly or indirectly connected to the central processing unit via a memory bus. It is actually two buses (not on the diagram): an address bus and a data bus. The CPU firstly sends a number through an address bus, a number called memory address, that indicates the desired location of data. Then it reads or writes the data itself using the data bus. Additionally, a memory management unit (MMU) is a small device between CPU and RAM recalculating the actual memory address, for example to provide an abstraction of virtual memory or other tasks.

As the RAM types used for primary storage are volatile (cleared at start up), a computer containing only such storage would not have a source to read instructions from, in order to start the computer. Hence, non-volatile primary storage containing a small startup program (BIOS) is used to bootstrap the computer, that is, to read a larger program from non-volatile secondary storage to RAM and start to execute it. A non-volatile technology used for this purpose is called ROM, for read-only memory (the terminology may be somewhat confusing as most ROM types are also capable of random access).

Many types of "ROM" are not literally read only, as updates are possible; however it is slow and memory must be erased in large portions before it can be re-written. Some embedded systems run programs directly from ROM (or similar), because such programs are rarely changed. Standard computers do not store non-rudimentary programs in ROM, rather use large capacities of secondary storage, which is non-volatile as well, and not as costly.

Recently, primary storage and secondary storage in some uses refer to what was historically called, respectively, secondary storage and tertiary storage.^[1]

STORAGE

Computer data storage, often called storage or memory, refers to computer components, devices, and recording media that retain digital data used for computing for some interval of time. Computer data storage provides one of the core functions of the modern computer, that of information retention. It is one of the fundamental components of all modern computers, and coupled with a central processing unit (CPU, a processor), implements the basic computer model used since the 1940s.

In contemporary usage, memory usually refers to a form of semiconductor storage known as random-access memory (RAM) and sometimes other forms of fast but temporary storage. Similarly, storage today more commonly refers to mass storage — optical discs, forms of magnetic storage like hard disk drives, and other types slower than RAM, but of a more permanent nature. Historically, memory and storage were respectively called main memory and secondary storage. The terms internal memory and external memory are also used.

The contemporary distinctions are helpful, because they are also fundamental to the architecture of computers in general. The distinctions also reflect an important and significant technical difference between memory and mass storage devices, which has been blurred by the historical usage of the term storage. Nevertheless, this article uses the traditional

MeNfoRmat HarDisk...

Tips dan Cara Memformat Ulang Hard Disk dan Menginstall Ulang OS Windows atau Linux pada Komputer PC / Laptop - Petunjuk Teknis
Mon, 19/06/2006 - 1:23pm — godam64
Masalah yang bersifat fatal dan parah bisa saja terjadi kapan dan di mana saja tidak memandang merk dan harga komputer pc / laptop anda. Terkadang komputer tidak bisa masuk ke windows akibat banyak hal seperti terkena virus, file booting hilang, bad sector, komputer lambat, komputer sering hang, salah seting dan berbagai masalah lainnya.
Jika berbagai cara sudah anda lakukan dan belum mendapatkan hasil yang memuaskan maka jalan pintas / singkat yang paling baik adalah dengan cara format ulang harddisk / hard drive yang ada di koputer pc / laptop anda. Pada tips ini akan diberikan beberapa langkah mudah yang dapat anda lakukan sendiri tetapi tidak secara mendetail. Bila anda butuh bimbingan anda bisa menanyakan di forum situs organisasi.org ini. Mudah-mudahan saya atau kawan lain dapat membantu anda.

IP address

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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This article is about IP addresses in general. For the Wikipedia user access level, see Wikipedia:User access levels#Anonymous users.

An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a numerical label that is assigned to devices participating in a computer network, that uses the Internet Protocol for communication between its nodes.^[1] An IP address serves two principal functions: host or network interface identification and location addressing. Its role has been characterized as follows: "A name indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there."^[2]

The designers of TCP/IP defined an IP address as a 32-bit number^[1] and this system, known as Internet Protocol Version 4 or IPv4, is still in use today. However, due to the enormous growth of the Internet and the resulting depletion of available addresses, a new addressing system (IPv6), using 128 bits for the address, was developed in 1995^[3] and last standardized by RFC 2460 in 1998.^[4] Although IP addresses are stored as binary numbers, they are usually displayed in human-readable notations, such as 208.77.188.166 (for IPv4), and 2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:1:1 (for IPv6).

The Internet Protocol also routes data packets between networks; IP addresses specify the locations of the source and destination nodes in the topology of the routing system. For this purpose, some of the bits in an IP address are used to designate a subnetwork. The number of these bits is indicated in CIDR notation, appended to the IP address; e.g., 208.77.188.166/24.

As the development of private networks raised the threat of IPv4 address exhaustion, RFC 1918 set aside a group of private address spaces that may be used by anyone on private networks. They are often used with network address translators to connect to the global public Internet.

The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), which manages the IP address space allocations globally, cooperates with five Regional Internet Registries (RIRs) to allocate IP address blocks to Local Internet Registries (Internet service providers) and other entities.

Contents [hide] 1 IP versions 1.1 IP version 4 addresses 1.1.1 IPv4 subnetting 1.1.2 IPv4 private addresses 1.2 IPv4 address depletion 1.3 IP version 6 addresses 1.3.1 IPv6 private addresses 2 IP subnetworks 3 Static vs dynamic IP addresses 3.1 Method of assignment 3.2 Uses of dynamic addressing 3.2.1 Sticky dynamic IP address 3.3 Address autoconfiguration 3.4 Uses of static addressing 4 Modifications to IP addressing 4.1 IP blocking and firewalls 4.2 IP address translation 5 Tools 6 Standardization 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links

colour code

straight cable

What are Straight and Crossover cable

Common Ethernet network cable are straight and crossover cable. This Ethernet network cable is made of 4 pair high performance cable that consists twisted pair conductors that used for data transmission. Both end of cable is called RJ45 connector.

The cable can be categorized as Cat 5, Cat 5e, Cat 6 UTP cable. Cat 5 UTP cable can support 10/100 Mbps Ethernet network, whereas Cat 5e and Cat 6 UTP cable can support Ethernet network running at 10/100/1000 Mbps. You might heard about Cat 3 UTP cable, it's not popular anymore since it can only support 10 Mbps Ethernet network.

Straight and crossover cable can be Cat3, Cat 5, Cat 5e or Cat 6 UTP cable, the only difference is each type will have different wire arrangement in the cable for serving different purposes.

Straight Cable

You usually use straight cable to connect different type of devices. This type of cable will be used most of the time and can be used to:

1) Connect a computer to a switch/hub's normal port.
2) Connect a computer to a cable/DSL modem's LAN port.
3) Connect a router's WAN port to a cable/DSL modem's LAN port.
4) Connect a router's LAN port to a switch/hub's uplink port. (normally used for expanding network)
5) Connect 2 switches/hubs with one of the switch/hub using an uplink port and the other one using normal port.

If you need to check how straight cable looks like, it's easy. Both side (side A and side B) of cable have wire arrangement with same color. Check out different types of straight cable that are available in the market here.

Crossover Cable

Sometimes you will use crossover cable, it's usually used to connect same type of devices. A crossover cable can be used to:

1) Connect 2 computers directly.
2) Connect a router's LAN port to a switch/hub's normal port. (normally used for expanding network)
3) Connect 2 switches/hubs by using normal port in both switches/hubs.

In you need to check how crossover cable looks like, both side (side A and side B) of cable have wire arrangement with following different color . Have a look on these crossover cables if you plan to buy one. You can also find more network cable choices and information from Comtrad Cables.

In case you need to make a crossover cable yourself! You can use this crimper to do it.

Lastly, if you still not sure which type of cable to be used sometimes, try both cables and see which works.

Note: If there is auto MDI/MDI-X feature support on the switch, hub, network card or other network devices, you don't have to use crossover cable in the situation which I mentioned above. This is because crossover function would be enabled automatically when it's needed.

A crossover cable connects two devices of the same type, for example DTE-DTE or DCE-DCE, usually connected asymmetrically (DTE-DCE), by a modified cable called a crosslink. Such distinction of devices was introduced by IBM.

The crossing wires in a cable or in a connector adaptor allows:

• connecting two devices directly, output of one to input of the other,
• letting two terminal (DTE) devices communicate without an interconnecting hub knot, i.e. PCs,
• linking two or more hubs, switches or routers (DCE) together, possibly to work as one wider device.

  Examples

  • a Null modem of RS-232
  • Ethernet crossover cable
  • Rollover cable
  • A loopback is a type of degraded "one side crosslinked connection" connecting a port to itself, usually for test purposes.

  Use crossover cables for the following connections: Switch to switch, Switch to hub, Hub to hub, Router to router, PC to PC, Router to PC

  [edit] Other technologies

  Some connection standards use different balanced pairs to transmit data, so crossover cables for them have different configurations to swap the transmit and receive pairs:

  • Twisted pair Token ring uses T568B pairs 1 and 3 (the same as T568A pairs 1 and 2), so a crossover cable to connect two Token Ring interfaces must swap these pairs, connecting pins 4, 5, 3, and 6 to 3, 6, 4, and 5 respectively.
  • A T1 cable uses T568B pairs 1 and 2, so to connect two T1 CSU/DSU devices back-to-back requires a crossover cable that swaps these pairs. Specifically, pins 1, 2, 4, and 5 are connected to 4, 5, 1, and 2 respectively.
  • A 56K DDS cable uses T568B pairs 02 and 04, so a crossover cable for these devices swaps those pairs (pins 01, 02, 07, and 08 are connected to 07, 08, 01, and 02 respectively).

  A null modem cable.

  An Ethernet crossover cable.

software

Computer software, or just software is a general term primarily used for digitally stored data such as computer programs and other kinds of information read and written by computers. Today, this includes data that has not traditionally been associated with computers, such as film, tapes and records.[1] The term was coined in order to contrast to the old term hardware (meaning physical devices); in contrast to hardware, software is intangible, meaning it "cannot be touched".[2] Software is also sometimes used in a more narrow sense, meaning application software only.
Examples:
Application software, such as word processors which perform productive tasks for users.
Firmware, which is software programmed resident to electrically programmable memory devices on board mainboards or other types of integrated hardware carriers.
Middleware, which controls and co-ordinates distributed systems.
System software such as operating systems, which govern computing resources and provide convenience for users.
Software testing is a domain independent of development and programming. Software testing consists of various methods to test and declare a software product fit before it can be launched for use by either an individual or a group.
Testware, which is an umbrella term or container term for all utilities and application software that serve in combination for testing a software package but not necessarily may optionally contribute to operational purposes. As such, testware is not a standing configuration but merely a working environment for application software or subsets thereof.
Video games (except the hardware part)
Websites

computer virus

A computer virus is a computer program that can copy itself[1] and infect a computer. The term "virus" is also commonly but erroneously used to refer to other types of malware, adware, and spyware programs that do not have the reproductive ability. A true virus can only spread from one computer to another (in some form of executable code) when its host is taken to the target computer; for instance because a user sent it over a network or the Internet, or carried it on a removable medium such as a floppy disk, CD, DVD, or USB drive. Viruses can increase their chances of spreading to other computers by infecting files on a network file system or a file system that is accessed by another computer.[2][3]
As stated above, the term "computer virus" is sometimes used as a catch-all phrase to include all types of malware, adware, and spyware programs that do not have the reproductive ability. Malware includes computer viruses, worms, trojans, most rootkits, spyware, dishonest adware, crimeware, and other malicious and unwanted software, including true viruses. Viruses are sometimes confused with computer worms and Trojan horses, which are technically different. A worm can exploit security vulnerabilities to spread itself automatically to other computers through networks, while a Trojan is a program that appears harmless but hides malicious functions. Worms and Trojans, like viruses, may harm a computer system's data or performance. Some viruses and other malware have symptoms noticeable to the computer user, but many are surreptitious and go unnoticed.

computer system

A computer is a programmable machine that receives input, stores and manipulates data, and provides output in a useful format.
Although mechanical examples of computers have existed through much of recorded human history, the first electronic computers were developed in the mid-20th century (1940–1945). These were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal computers (PCs).[1] Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space.[2] Simple computers are small enough to fit into small pocket devices, and can be powered by a small battery. Personal computers in their various forms are icons of the Information Age and are what most people think of as "computers". However, the embedded computers found in many devices from MP3 players to fighter aircraft and from toys to industrial robots are the most numerous.
The ability to store and execute lists of instructions called programs makes computers extremely versatile, distinguishing them from calculators. The Church–Turing thesis is a mathematical statement of this versatility: any computer with a certain minimum capability is, in principle, capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform. Therefore computers ranging from a netbook to a supercomputer are all able to perform the same computational tasks, given enough time and storage capacity.

programming

A professional well-versed in a wide variety of concepts related to Information Technology can expect to find career opportunities in all parts of the globe. Computer sciences professionals need be familiar with a wide range of concepts, tools and abstract ideas related to computers. Many high-tech and creative job environments are available for programmers, developers, researchers, computer scientists and IT professionals who have attained necessary skills and possess talent to succeed in today’s cut-throat competition.
Online training tutorials in this website focus on various topics related to programming. These tutorials are provided for the benefit of students and professional who interested to build a career in Information Technology, programming and development. User can gain knowledge and insight on allied topics such as debugging, designing documents in programming methodology, feasibility studies, testing, table space, software development, ISPF, features of Object Oriented Programming (OOP), client/server computing and basic concepts of SQL.
Tutorials and online training in this website offer explanations of many important concepts related to development and programming including; database terminology, Interactive System Productive Facility (ISPF), Multiple Virtual Storage (MVS) and aspect checking in COBOL program.
Students and IT professional can go through tutorials based on technology trends, supply chain management and Neuro-Linguistic programming to become familiar with latest concepts in the field of computer sciences.

multimedia concept

Multimedia Concepts
4.1.1 Definition of Multimedia1. Systems that support the interactive use of text, audio, still images, video, and graphics. Each of these elements must be converted in some way from analog form to digital form before they can be used in a computer application. Thus, the distinction of multimedia is the convergence of previously diverse systems.www.tamu.edu/ode/glossary.html
2. Presentations of sound and light, words in magnetically graven image - and any known combination thereof as well as nuances yet to come. Though computer CD is the dominant wrapper for these works, technological innovation is the hallmark of the electronic-publishing arena, and new formats will expand the creative and market potential. Multimedia books are publishing events; their advent suggests alternative avenues for authors as well as adaptational tie-ins with the world of print. ...www.brochure-design.com/brochure-design-publishing-terms.html
3. Presenting data in more than one medium, such as combining text, graphics and sound.www.micro2000uk.co.uk/hardware_glossary.htm
4. A combination of media types on a single document, including: text, graphics, animation, audio and video.www.vikont.com/clients/glossary.htm
5. A combination of various types of media, including sound, animation, video and graphics. Due to the generally large size of "multimedia" files, a CD-ROM is usually necessary to store files. As well, appropriate sound and video cards and speakers are also necessary.www.angelfire.com/bc/nursinginformatics/glossary4.html

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Malaysia is, in many ways, an atypical country. It is hard to categorize and neither developed nor developing, or both, depending on the region. It is characterized by great disparities within the country and faces the dilemma of ensuring its regional and global competitiveness in ICT while at the same time ensuring equitable ICT access in rural areas. Thus there are projects such as the Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC), a government-driven initiative to develop a Malaysian Silicon Valley, as well as the Internet Desa, a program to install Internet centers in rural areas.
The Internet is developing rapidly in Malaysia, helped by some of the lowest dial-up rates in the world (around 40 US cents per hour). As a result, there were some 1.2 million Internet subscribers—the majority residential—at the end of 2000 with an estimated 15 per cent of the population using the Internet. Broadband access is predominantly via leased lines. Asynchronous Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) technology is being tested but is not yet widely available. Pay television service is mainly through Direct-to-Home satellite technology so cable modem access is not an option in Malaysia. Another option for broadband access is through fixed wireless but there are a number of technical and regulatory challenges to overcome in this area.
An ITU team, consisting of Vanessa Gray, Michael Minges and Lucy Firth, carried out field research for Malaysia from 2-6 April 2001. The Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission (CMC)—the country’s Information and Communication Technology (ICT) regulator—served as counterpart and organized meetings with relevant government and industry organization.
See also the Malaysia Broadband Case Study, preparedby the ITU’s Strategy and Policy Unit (SPU).